from The Conversation
— this post authored by Chris Rudge, University of Sydney
In the late 19th century, Sigmund Freud’s colleague Wilhelm Fleiss successfully diagnosed an illness in one of Freud’s relatives, without even having met them. Freud was so impressed by Fleiss’s “diagnostic acumen” that he went on to advocate the method in certain circumstances.
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Freud would write that diagnosing someone without personally examining them was acceptable where the features of certain disorders, such as paranoid schizophrenia (then known as dementia paranoides), made the interview process counterproductive. Here, Freud noted that “a written report or a printed case history can take the place of personal acquaintance with the patient“.
Now, a controversial debate about the ethics of diagnosis at a distance or long-distance diagnosis has arisen in the US. It has come about as commentators have proposed that President Donald Trump suffers from narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), among other conditions.
Read more: The appeal of narcissistic leaders is also their downfall
Sigmund Freud believed diagnosing people without examining them was appropriate in some circumstances. Wikimedia Commons
Health professionals have weighed in as well. Psychotherapist and former assistant professor of psychiatry John D. Gartner has been particularly vehement in his assessment of the President. Gartner asserts that Trump suffers from malignant narcissism, a specific manifestation of NPD.
According to the DSM-5 – the authoritative psychiatric manual – this condition is characterised by various “traits of antagonism“, including “manipulativeness, deceitfulness, [and] callousness“.
Notably, the DSM-5 names the condition only once throughout its hundreds of pages; and some academic psychiatrists say the disorder is understudied and its features largely unsettled, with no treatment yet established.
Despite this, Gartner is convinced that the president’s conduct fulfils the criteria of malignant narcissism – even without having interviewed him:
We’ve seen enough public behaviour by Donald Trump now that we can make this diagnosis indisputably.
Recently, the American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA) issued a memo to its more than 3,500 members, advising they were “free to comment about political figures as individuals“, and that the APsaA did not regard “political commentary by its individual members an ethical matter“.
By contrast, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) has long maintained a strict ethical stance on the open discussion of public figures’ mental states. Enshrined in the so-called Goldwater rule, the APA’s prescription cautions psychiatrists against diagnosis at a distance.
As former APA President Herbert Sacks put it, psychiatrists should avoid engaging in “psychobabble“, especially when it comes to politicians. He said that, when “reported by the media“, such diagnostic speculation only “undermines psychiatry as a science“.
The Goldwater rule is named after former Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater, who was defeated in the 1964 election. Wikimedia Commons
Although the Goldwater rule is not enshrined in Australian law, a code of ethics provides guidance to Australian psychiatrists about their conduct in the media.
What is the Goldwater rule?
The Goldwater rule is named after an incident involving Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater. Having been defeated in the 1964 US election, Goldwater sued the editor of the short-lived political magazine “Fact” for defamation.
Just one month before the election, Fact’s front page had printed a controversial declaration:
1,189 psychiatrists say Goldwater is psychologically unfit to be president!
Fact had conducted a broad but clinically invalid survey, providing questionnaires to more than 12,000 psychiatrists whose details the magazine had obtained from the American Medical Association’s membership list. Of the 2,417 responses it received, some 1,189 psychiatrists asserted Goldwater was unfit for office.
In the feature article, Fact purported to quote many of the psychiatrists it had surveyed, and used their words to suggest that Goldwater was a “megalomaniac, paranoid, and grossly psychotic“, and even suffering from “schizophrenia“.
In the trial that followed, Goldwater was awarded some US$75,000 in punitive damages – enough to ensure that Fact never published another issue.
Fact magazine’s last issue, and the headline for which Goldwater sued. Courtesy FLAT File magazine at the Herb Lubalin Study Center, New York.
The ruling raised disturbing questions for the APA, threatening not only the reputation of the psychiatric profession, but the future livelihoods of practitioners. In slightly different circumstances, a psychiatrist might face similar civil action, whether “for invasion of privacy or defamation of character“.
In 1973, some four years after the trial, the Goldwater rule was first published in the APA’s professional ethical code. In the most recent 2013 edition, the rule reads as follows:
On occasion psychiatrists are asked for an opinion about an individual who is in the light of public attention or who has disclosed information about himself/herself through public media. In such circumstances, a psychiatrist may share with the public his or her expertise about psychiatric issues in general.
However, it is unethical for a psychiatrist to offer a professional opinion unless he or she has conducted an examination and has been granted proper authorization for such a statement.
The rule in dispute
Many academic psychiatrists disagree with the rule. Some have suggested that breaking the Goldwater rule is ethical when it’s necessary to diagnose “mass murderers” from afar, or when “the importance of the diagnosis of an individual … rise[s] to the level of a national threat“.
Others have criticised the rule more generally, calling it “an excessive organisational response” to “an inflammatory and embarrassing moment for American psychiatry“. And one psychiatrist has recently described the prescription as “American society’s gag rule“.
In February this year, The New York Times published a letter signed by some 33 psychiatrists who blamed the rule for silencing them at this “critical time“. They wrote that “too much [was] at stake to be silent any longer“, and that Donald Trump’s “emotional instability” had made him “incapable of serving safely as president“.
Some psychologists believe Donald Trump too unstable to be president. SHAWN THEW/AAP
The tension between the APA and its members, and between the APA and the APsaA, partly reflects the history of the two disciplines. Since the 1940s, psychiatry has increasingly focused on medical interventions, while tending to neglect the “in-depth talk therapies” which, despite their general decline, remain central to the psychoanalytic method.
But the situation is still more complicated than this. After all, the methods of psychiatrists and psychoanalysts often overlap. In many practices, for instance, psychiatrists employ intuitive reasoning in the diagnostic process.
For some diagnosticians, the so-called “Praecox-Gefühl” or “praecox feeling” remains at the “clinical core” of diagnosing schizophrenia, despite the method’s varied reliability. First described in the 1940s, the praecox feeling is a complex, emotionally charged intuitive sense that a psychiatrist sometimes gets when detecting the subtle symptoms of an emergent psychosis.
What now for the Goldwater rule?
That psychoanalysts may wish to distinguish themselves from psychiatrists on the Goldwater rule, and vice versa, is unsurprising. In countless ways – more than can be named here – psychoanalysts and psychiatrists adopt different views of their roles in the diagnostic process. This is the result of their different training backgrounds, histories, and professional cultures.
Less expected, however, is the growing feeling among psychoanalysts and psychiatrists alike, that today, more than ever, the Goldwater rule should be set aside. While neither group may wish to admit it, the Trump era may have brought psychiatrists and psychoanalysts closer together – at least on this point.
Chris Rudge, Postdoctoral researcher, University of Sydney
This article was originally published on The Conversation. Read the original article.
